Section 2 Foundation and types of culture in international business negotiations

2.1 Definition of culture and its features

     The features of culture go as follows:

     1) Culture is learned.

     2) Culture is shared and transmitted.

     3) Culture is compelling and interrelated.

     4) Culture provides orientation.

2.2 Foundation of culture

     Generally speaking, the foundation of a culture is its values and norms. Values establish the culture bedrock of a society and provide the context within which a society’s norms are formed and justified. The social structure and religion can be influenced by values and norms of a society.

     Types of values usually include ethical and moral values, doctrinal and ideological (religious, political) values, social values, and aesthetic values. Values have been studied in anthropology, behavioral economics, business ethics, corporate governance, moral philosophy, political sciences, social psychology, sociology, theology, and in the realm of consumer behavior and sports marketing.

     Values can be defined as broad preference concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes. What’s more, norms can be categorized as folkway (民俗) or mores (民德).

2.3 Types of culture

     2.3.1 Gender: Masculinity(男性主义) versus Feminism

     2.3.2 Uncertainty avoidance: high and low uncertainty avoidance

     2.3.3 Power distance

     2.3.4 Individualism and centralism

     2.3.5 Term orientation: Long and short term orientation